主题景观的视觉性VisualLandscapeResearch—OVen,iewandOutlook视觉景观研究一回顾与展望(德)埃卡特·兰格/(Germany)EckartLange摘要:阐述了视觉景观研究的回顾与展望。在2个对立学派的基础上形成视觉景观质量评估。客观主义者或物理学派(基于专家的方式方法)认为视觉景观质量是其自身物质特性的内在表现。主观主义者或心理学派(基于个人的方式方法)认为景观美是客体或视觉媒介和观察者的相互作用。如照片、草图、模型、三维可视化等景观表达可以协助实施现场或遥感评估。评估方法包括例如明智的配对比较法、分类法,还有其他分级或排序法。大多数的研究脱离现实环境而实施,容易忽视人们动态地感知世界。在虚拟现实影院里,景观身临其境的体验为观众提供了自由探索这个虚拟环境的机会。移动增强现实技术的最新发展进一步提供了这种可能:现存环境的影像与被数字可视化的未来变化影像相叠合,如同现场体验一般,从而提供了全方位的感官体验,这将为景观评估提供新的途径。关键词:风景园林;视觉景观评估;评估方法;展望文章编号:1000—6664(2012)03—0005—10中图分类号:TU986(博茨瓦纳)伊泽瑞尔·勒格瓦伊拉撰文/(Botswana)IsraelLegwaila刘滨谊唐真译/TranslatedbyLIUBin—yi,TANGZhen文献标志码:A修圊日期:2011-02—26收稿日期:2011-01—17;Abstract:Thispaperprovideslandscapeisapproachedanoverviewandoutlookofresearchonthevisuallandscape.Thequalityofthevisualthebasisoftwocontrastingparadigms.Theobjectivistphysicalparadigm(expertbasedorapproach)assumesthatvisuallandscapequalityisinherentinitsphysicalcharacteristics.Thesubjectivistparadigm(1aypersonbasedapproach)regardslandscapebeautyobserver.Assessmentspsychologicalfunctionoftheobjectthevisualstimulusandthebecarriedouton—siteorremotely;assistedbyrepresentationsofthelandscape,e.g.photographs,sketches,models,3D—visualisations,etc.Assessmentmethodsincludee.g.pair-wisecomparisons,sortingtechniqueswellotherratingorrankingtechniques.Mostresearchiscarriedoutdetachedfromtheactualenvironmentandtendstoneglectthathumansperceivetheworlddynamically.Theimmersiveexperienceoflandscapeinviewerwiththeopportunitygofurtherandallowexperiencedintheassessment.totovirtualrealitytheatreprovidesthefreelyexplorethisvirtualenvironment.RecentdevelopmentsinmobileAugmentedRealityoverlaydigitalvisualisationsshowingproposedfuturechangesprovidingtopoftheexistingenvironmenttofield.Thusmulti—sensoryexperience.ThishasthepotentialtoleadnewroutesinlandscapeKeywords:landscapearchitecture;visuallandscapeassessment;assessmentmethod;outlook美是审美价值的核心Ⅲ。风景园林学是一门关于美的学问。美是风景园林学科的灵魂。风景园林师通过他们的工作可以使世界变得更加美丽。同时,风景园林师也评估由其他学科专业提出的各类项目的视觉效果和影响,辅助保护我们环境的美。风景园林学科在处理美感、创意行为以及美学分析方面有着悠久的传统。2视觉景观评估中的2个主要学派风景园林规划设计决策的核心部分是评估未来景观可能发生的变化。从20世_±E70年代末开始,在美国林务局、土地管理局和国家公园管理局的推动下,诸视觉景观评估的方法有了长足发展。从那时起,尽管视觉景观评估的方法和原理进展不大,但是为视觉景观评估的景观可视化和景观改变服务的预测技术已发生了巨大的变革。1视觉景观评估的内在问题当一个人描绘一个事物的美丽或丑陋时,其视觉质量的价值判断就随之形成f2]。风景园林师已经做出了巨大努力,试图开创一种理论,以解释为什么人们对某种景观有着一定的审美感知,而非其他的景观[3_4】。由于景观美学观念的主观性而使得这些尝试变得难以实现。尽管如此,仍有不同研究者提出了许多关于景观审美的人类感知行为的解释。过去,在文艺复兴中开创的视觉景观表现,例如,精致的透视图,其绝大多数是用于极具声望的设计项目。在18世纪末、19世纪初期,亨弗利-雷普顿(HumphryRepton)在他的红皮书中制作了f生的设计方案,建造前后的可视化景观图(用水彩画做成的折页),类似绘画,这些是唯一的原件。即使是在视觉景观评估的方法有所发展1j920世-tE70年代,用于表现万方数据5主题景观的视觉性。0∞恐‰。_7一。盔:磐‰.f;勰i。嘲1视觉质量在景脱中的作州”1Fig】TheroleofvisualqualityinIhelandscape”5例2从新天鹅堡向外观看I巴伐利亚州,德国JFig2ViewfromNeuschw柚slelnCaslle.Bavaria,GemlanyViewofNemschwansleinCastle,Bavaria,Ge丌nanyH3从外观看新天鹅堡(巴值利亚州,德周1Fig3景观的技术也还是极为有限,主要就是透视手绘、照片和照片台成技术。评估尚未存在和方案设想的景观引发了诸如比选方案视觉化表达的方问题。当然,这是在方案评估过程中的一个关键因素。而今,已有一系列现成的方法技术帮助风景园林师创造全方位的虚拟环境。在2个对立学派的基础上形成视觉景观质量评估。客观主义者或物理学派f基于专家的方式方法)认为景观质量是物质景观元素,如地形、植被、水体等属’性中的内在价值。这种物质性的景观因素对于视觉景观质量的作用可以通过数学模型予以量化156]o不过,由于动物和人类的感受难以被他人所理解,此类模型未考虑动物和人类因素”。主观主义者或心理学派f基于个人的方式方法)认为景观美存在于观赏者的眼中,是基于客体的感知和由其唤起的记’亿和符号象征。为了揭示公众的价值观,常采用调查或调查问卷的形式。数十年来,在模型试样的代表性和专家主观性问题上,2个学派一直在争论_8j。奇怪的是,这2种方法已经结台。根据专家确定的更为客观的景观特性,由公众介入来完成感知评估口。1…。然而,仍旧没有出现一个自成一体的评估框架。值的野花草地)和社会价值(如赏心悦目的风景和人类健康幸福)相关联的美学…。4视觉质量制图描述、绘制地图和描绘现存景观视觉质量的方式有助于视觉景观评估方法的实施。例如,绘制需要改变的脆弱’|生的景观元素。绘制视觉质量的地图,即绘制理论上能够展示不同区域、不同层次的视觉质量的地图,听上去是一件简单易做的事情。然而,需要一种适用于2种学派的重要考虑因素,这在方法学上很难处理,它涉及所见的景观是来自一个给定的景点,还是看这个实际景点本身(“从四周看此景点”与“从此景点向四周看”的问题1。也就是说,当我看到了一幅美景,但实际上是在一个丑陋的景观中,例如在废物垃圾场,这到底影响有多大'或者反之亦然,这将如何影响评估?图2、图3提供了一个较不极端A,9仃U子。要解决这一问题,不只是给出这个实际地点的得分,还要将周边环境的价值纳入综合评分之中。5视觉质量评估的方法3作为视觉资源的景观视觉景观是一种公共资源,为了保护和强化这种资源以确保可持续性,需要规划和连续不断的管理。高博斯特(Gobster)等人【11认为对于未来景观格局美学的景观规划、设计和管理是保护和强化环境功能性目标的一种强有力的方式。也就是说,具有审美愉’睨感的景观比那些不具审美感的、不顾功能重要性的景观更有可能得到偏爱和关注14,I12J景观和视觉质量评估学寻求建立或预测基于专家或公众的评判的景观质量。某些研究已经超越于此,建立景观的客观内容与影响人们景观感知的特征之间的关联【^o帖]。这种感知受不同景观展示度量的影响,其中一类的研究偏重于观察者对于景观的情感,这些被称为认知尺度,包括诸如神秘’眭、庄严性、稀缺r|生或者例如令人沮丧、令人耳目一新等度量m““。其他度量则被称为景观的物质度量,如地形、水、建筑、林地(表1),描述可以包括品种、颜色、质感、优势、主导和统一【“。视觉质量评估研究在寻求人们景观客观的(专家、专业人士)与主观的(公众)转译这方面已有所开展‘5。“”∞t1】(图41。o同时,得到关注的景观更有机会延续其功能性,因而能够更加可持续地良’_生循环f图1)。更为深入广泛地思考视觉景观质量。其潜在影响远远不只是已被证明的与经济价值(如美丽景观与旅游业1、生态价值(如具有高生态的、美学价万方数据VisuaILandscape//\\SystemalicMethods:岁絮:罗絮芝阁4景蝴党质量刖^方法的分类(Chcnoweth,Gobs【er,】q舶)Fig4Classifyingthemethodsmrassess…tollandscapevisualqu“lty(Che…elhandGobsterl086H5探索虚拟环境Rg5Explonngvirlua]environmentsI刳^削像仅提供不完整的感官展现,我“J只能想象花的香味Fig6AnⅦng。providesonly8nincompleteWeonlyimaginethe㈣oftheflowersseosory”P—ntntlon5.1基于专家的评估基于专家的评估假设景观的质量是其自身物质特性的内在表现HJ。6评估数据收集的策略6.1媒介作为景观评估方的下一步,媒介和样本是收集评估数据A92个关键元素。长期以来,照片是最常用的媒介。这些特眭被看做是可以评估个体或总体景观的构架,借此可建立和预测一个景观视觉质量水平。这涉及利用专家来涮介不同景观成分的一系列标准”。‘”。这一方法需要通过专家对景观予以特征化,具体通过景观的构成要素(如线、形、变化、统、色彩、主导、对比)以及对于每一物理构成要素总体景观美学质量的贡献的赋值来实现。为开发景观审美偏爱的预测模型,这一方法同样适用于个体景观特’性的量化9J。在大多数的早期研究中,照片一直是景观评估的媒介p”矧。人们发现,作为现实景观的替代品,照片的景观偏爱评估相对最为接近景观的直观感受∞J。只有当数字影像技术成为可能12”,才能开辟一条全新景观偏爱研究的途径。通过这个领域大量的研究出版物证明,数字图像处理允许试验性的建造,例如,基于严密的分形设计口…。在景观偏爱研究中,该技术已经扩展到虚拟景观模型的运用m2…,这对试验的全方位研究有着更可控的优势(国5)。5.2基于公众的评估基于景观美感的事实,非专家的,即公众偏爱法有2个源头:客体和观察者‘6…。此方法基于人们和所处环境之间相互作用的体验结果‘玎J。“基于记忆、联想、想象和符号象征所唤起的感知的转译,这种体验结果是一种人类的构成。口””此方法基于观察者的感知评估景观视觉质量。个体观察者对景观的评判是主观的,而一定数量的个体观点的共识,就能克服由个体主观’性造成的感知观点的非一致性m站J。非专家法要求一定数量的受访者参加调查或实验,而以专家为主的方法可以由单独一位专家操作,因而受到批评。非专家法被认为比基于专家的方法更加精确可靠【8表1观察者特性文化背景熟悉程度性别年龄职业学术背景25】。任何遥感式评估,无论是在实验室里、或是纸上谈兵、抑或是上网都是省钱省力的,因为研究者不必把评估者送到评估现场,而无需支出交通费用。所有这些方法其共同点都在于聚焦于景观的视觉度量的研究。在这一方面,照片和其他可视化的东西都是有效的替代品。然而,景观不仅是一种视觉现象,它还提供综合感官的体验(图6)。6.2现场评估此方法要求评估者在现场景观评估中使用实际景观作为媒介来进行评影响景蕊偏爱的因素旧1”1“估。为评估者安排合适的时间和交通工具是一个挑战,它把评判者带到现景观特性尺寸,比倒矿物类型地形植被类型和结构景观的重要性主客观关系距离可视性大气特征天气白无垂节莲雾场以真实感受评估真实的景观。这在某些情况下可能是理想选择,然而,与此相关的时间和金钱的成本可能就不台理了。如果其他体验因素例如声音也被评估的话,那么现场评估可能就更有利。然而,现场评估只允许评估现有的情况,即使现场提供了人们以综合感官体验进行评判的可能,他们也只能评估现有的情况。拟进行的改变和万方数据主题景观的视觉性影响将无法在现场体验到。6.3纸质调查纸质调查通常被用来做邮寄问卷调查㈣301。也可以让小组或个体参加者置身于试验中现场填写调查问卷进行评估。当采用邮寄方式时,照片仍旧用作媒介,必须保证图像的质量是高水平的,才能展示他们的意图。在实验安排中,打印的或投影的照片可以代表用于评估的媒介。过去,景观评估中一直使用幻灯片‘16。17,261。投影的图像是静态的。如今,作为景观评估研究的媒介,数字影像和数字投影技术使静态图像和动画序列投射都成为了可能。6.4网络调查随着万维网的出现,越来越多的调查是通过互联网进行的E15,311。这就要求以数码照片或数字可视化呈现的数字化资料。因为远距离也触手可及,世界上任何地方的人都有机会通过互联网参与调查。这可能是实现大样本调查的好方法‘15,321。然而对参与样本的质量却难以控制口31。在视觉质量评估中,使用网络调查的弊端之一是人们根据计算机硬件的能力、显示器的分辨率和软件展示的场景来做出评值,调查提供的媒介物因此可能会显示出不同的质量,从而影响评估结果‘32书31。此外,对评估发生的设置也没有一个总体控制。7评级景观的方法7.1评级测度要获取试验设定中参与者的反应,就必须制定某种价值判断。为此,必须设定评级测度。有名义测度(如足球运动员编号)、序号测度(如学校分数、偏好排名)、区间测度(如温度)和比率测度(如年龄)。吉尔福德[341和西蒙兹【35】都认为分段愈少的测度在不同分段的区分水平上“可能导致效率损失”。也就是说,由于分段间的小间隔,会使得评估者难以区分在2个或多个媒介之间的偏爱水平,因而此类测度就不能为不同媒介的分级提供足够的差别。此外,多分段的测度也被认为有可能影响评估者区分各段之间差别的能力[1曩35]。在测度时,评估者被期望选择一个最能反映他们对媒介感知的数字或类别。吉尔福德畔]认为,当评估者对被评估的对象不具有广博的知识时,5段测度是最好用的。而西蒙兹E35]贝』认为7段测度为最宜。用数字表示质量分级的强度,这些测度有时连带着文字,以不断提醒观察者所要评估的标准(15’3引。而用超过5段的测度进行感受的口头描述则是一项挑战,因为数字更易与口头描述相匹配,测度的分段数字越少,对于口头描述就更易于理解[151。通常假定在偏爱分级中有一个潜在的标准,允许平均值的计算和完成进~步的高级统计。7.2明智的配对比较法在这一方法中,媒介被系统化地编组配对,并且每次给观察者展示一对[3叫。观察者对配对媒介做比较评断,确定2个中哪一个更有价值。这时用的是“瑟斯顿比较评判法”(371。配对的数量取决于评估客体的数量,客体的数量本身依据评估的目的。为了确定配对的数量,必须应用下列公式:[N(N—下)/2],其中N=客体总数[30]。8万方数据有趣的一一一一一乏味的『n协r瞄廿ng12345Bonng柔软的一一一一一坚硬的Sok12345№rd美蕊的一一一一一丑陋的BeauUfl|l1234SUgly图75分制分级测度的形容词两极示意图Fig7AnIllustrationofbipol”listofa啦fiveswith5-pointratingscale7.3分类法分类法与序号(分类)测度法大同小异。唯一的差别是媒介被分成不同类别,而观察者必须要按照这样的安排,对不同媒介的感知做出反映‘201。7.4双极列表,语义差别法语义差别法采用了一系列成对的形容词来描述景观认知度量E17,381。测度在成对的形容词之间确定,评估者根据每对形容词来表明他们的感知评判水平(图7)。为了方便易解,其结果可以将所有比分结合显示在一张图表里。7.5参与者抽样法在现实世界,与制定决策相关的参与者应具有评估的目标群体人口统计学上的代表性。然而,在这个领域的学术研究中,所涉及的目标群体绝大多数都是学生E5,201。关于样本大小,丹尼尔ES]得到过这样的结论,5-30人的小样本所得到的先期结果具有高度的内部一致性。不过,这些结果的复制衍生只有应用于具有同样特征的个体人群的参与者中,方具备可信度刚。8展望在景观视觉质量评估领域,迹象表明没有一个自成一体的评估框架。一方面是客观主义者或物理学派(基于专家的),另一方面是主观主义者或心理学派(基于个人的)。可视化研究的最新进展提供了这种可能:考虑那些迄今已被忽视了的抑或是难以处理的课题。这也许有助于在两大学派之间建立起沟通的桥梁。视觉评估的研究通常假定我们观察世界就好像我们观看静止或被框定的画面。然而,世界和观察者都不是静止的。依据生态感知理论‘391,我们通常动态地感知世界。人类的感知不是静止的,并且我们习惯于在运动中感受环境(图8)。有很多实证研究是关于景观序列评价或身临其境的体验的评价[401。将动态运动的因素纳入其中,例如虚拟现实剧院也可解决“从外部观察景点/从景点观察四周”的问题,观众就不会被到某一预先限定的画面之中。此外,在真实世界的规划设计方面,如一个项目的视觉影响评估可能导致一些负面作用,在拥护者和反对者之间,观察点的选择经常产生严重争执。这个问题在很大程度上可以用虚拟景观模型解决,在模型中观众并不局限于某些预先确定的观察点。VisualLandscape图8在现实世界中人{『J动态地探索环境FigInthemalworldpeopleexploretheenviroTI】TIentdynamically囝q手机增强现实方案i殳想的新公园显示在iPhone上,视野跟随地理参考和指南针导向定tEiPhone在不同方位,随着相应的方向蛹整屏幕上的画面ledMorg{-n博士提供)Rg9MohilePhoneAugmentedRealityAproposedparkisdisplayedontheiPhoneTheviewisadjustsgen—m№mncedandtheview…the…ntotheorientedtothecompassPointingtheiPhoneindift讪ntdir“tionsco|Tespondingdimclion(providedbyEdMorganHlI)与远程汁谇机相连的iPad.提供实时的叮觇化现场{蓝邑箭头显示的是现实世抖和iPad上的桥l(s】印dHehl—Lange博上提供JFig10IPadlinkedwithamlnotePCmⅢworldwellproviding”a】timevisualisationoH—sile(blueshowingthebddgointhetheihdJ(providedbySigridHehl一1.ange)然而,当观察者能够自由穿行于虚拟环境时,由于运用以实验为基础的方法,人们与以多重感官刺激为主的实际环境相分离。在实验室环境里,我们感官体验一个完全人为的展示空间,这就从相当大的程度上造成了无法超越的技术障碍。另一种方案是,“增强现实”的理念假定真实世界的影像与被数字可视化的未来变化影像相叠台。直到最近,随着高端原型的发展才使得增强现实技术成为可能。越来越多的移动设备能够显示复杂的3D图形,并且同时能够进入高容量的移动电话网络。现在,如lPad和智能手机等移动设备都可以支持增强现实技术(图9、10),从而扩展了当前可用的规划设计工具包,来体验现场真实世界的增强现实画面,同日寸也给用户提供了一个全方位的感官体验。很难预测何时、何种程度上,这种方法将普及到规划设计之中。显然,由于增强现实技术支持现场多感官的展示和体验,有可能相当彻底地改变规划设计中的评估和决策。然而,只有方案建议改变的视觉表现才能反映未来。其他的感官体验当然局限于现场的现状。视觉是目前人类感知中最主要的组成部分4J。上述新的发展将为视觉景观研究提供新的途径,同时也将为风景园林学多重感官体验的—体化而扩展人们的视野,从而为评信我1门的景观提供—种更为全面综合的方式方法。注文中图片除主明外,均为EckanLange教授拍摄或绘制。致谢:感谢来自EPSRC基金URSULA研究项目的埃德摩根博士(DrMorgan)和刘易斯吉尔(LewisGill)。Ed万方数据主题景观舳视觉性10万方数据landscape:AnalysisofLandscapeAndUrbanPlanningcontributions[J】LandscapeUrbanPlan,2008,84:7—19【15】LangeE,Hehl—LangeS,BrewerMJScenario—visualizationforthesmentofPerceivedgreenspacequalitiestheurban—ruralfringeU】.JournalofEnvironmentalManagement,2008,89(3):245—256.【16】HullRB,BuhyoffGJ.Distanceandscenicbeauty;Anon—monotonicrelationship[.]]EnvironmentandBehaviour,1983,15(1):77—91.【17】SharerELJr,RichardsTA.Acomparisonofreactionsoutdoorandphotographsofthoseed.ForestServicesU.S.DepartmentofAgricultureUpperDarby,Pennsylvania:U.SDepartmentofAgriculture,ForestServices,1974.【18】DeardenP.Societallandscapepreferences:apyramidofinfluences[M]//1)eardenP,SadlerBLandscapeEvaluation:ApproachesandApplications,eds.BritishColumbia:UniversityofBritishColumbia1989【19】ErvinSM,SteinitzC.LandscapeVisibilityComputation:NecessarybutsufficientO】.EnvironmentandPlanning:PlanningandDesign,2003,30:757—766.[20】LangeEThelimitsofrealism:perceptionsofvirtuallandscapes[J】.LandscapeandUrbanPlanning,2001,54(1—4):163-182.【21】LothianA.LandscapeandthephilosophyofAesthetics:Islandscapequalityinherentinthelandscapeintheeyeofthebeholder?U].LandscapeandUrbanPlanning,1999,44:177—198.[22】ZubeEH,SellJL,TaylorJG.LandscapePerception:Research,ApplicationandTheory[J].LandscapePlanning,1982.9:1-33.[23】CarlsonA,SadlerBTowardsmodelsofenvironmentalappreciation【M】//SadlerB,CarlA.EnvironmentalAesthedcs:Essayandinterpretation,eds.BritishColumbia:UniversityofBritishColumbia,1982.【24】HullRB,BuhyoffGJ.Individualandgroupreliabilityoflandscapeassessments[J】.LandscapePlanning,1984,11:67—71【25】ArthurLM,DanielTC,BosterRS.ScenicAssessment:Anoverview[J】.LandscapePlanning,1977,4:109—129[26】ClayGR,DanielTC.Sceniclandscapeassessment:theeffectsoflandmanagementjurisdictionpublicperceptionofscenicbeautyU】.LandscapeandUrbanPlanning,2000,49(1—21:1—13【27】LangeEVistaManagementinAcadiaNationalParkU].andUrbanPlanning,1990,19:353—376.【28】ZhengB,ZhangY,ChenJ.Preferencehomelandscape:wildnessneatness?U】.LandscapeandUrban[29】LangeE.IntegrationofcomputerizedvisualSimulationandvisualAssessmentinenvironmentalPlanningU】andUrbanPlanning,1994,30:99—112【30】ViningJ,StevensJJTheassessmentoflandscapemethodologicalconsiderations[M]//SmardonC,PalmerJF,FellemanJP,etalFoundationsforVisualanalysis.NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons.1986.[31】RothM.ValidatingtheofInternetsurveytechniquesinvisuallandscapeassessment—AnempiricalstudyfromGermany[J】.LandscapeandUrbanPlanning,2006,78(3):179—192.【32】WherrettJR.CreatinglandscapepreferencemodelsusinginternetsurveytechniquesU】.LandscapeResearch,2000,25(1):79—96.【33】WherrettJR.IssuesinusingtheinternetmediumforlandscapepreferenceresearchU】.LandscapeandUrbanPlanning,1999,45:209—217.[34】GuilfordJP.Psychometricmethods[M】.London:McGrawHillBookCompanylnc,1936.【35】SymondsPM.OntheLossofReliabilityinRatingsDueCoarsenessoftheScaleLl].JournalofExperimentalPsychology,1924,7(6):456—461.【36】FeimerNR,CraikKH,SmardonRC,eta1.AppraisingtheReliabilityofVisualImpactAssessmentMethod[C】.TheNationalConferenceAppliedTechniquesforAnalysiandManagement—oftheVisualResourceInclineVillage,Nevada,1979.【37]ThurstoneLLAlawofcomparativejudgement[J】.PsychologicalReview,1994,101(2):266—270.[38】RabinowitzCB,CoughlinRE.AnalysisofLandscapeCharacteristicsRelevantPreference[M】.Philadelphia:Re‘gionalScienceResearchInstitute,1970.【39】GibJJ.Theecologicalapproachvisualperception[M】.Houghton,Mifflin,Boston1979【40]RohrmannB,BishopID.Subjectiveresponsescomputersimulationsofurbanenvironments[J】.J.Environ.Psychol,2002,22:319—331【41】BV,GreenPR,GeorgeMA.Visualperception,physiology,psychologyandecology[M].EastSussex:PsychologyPress,1996.(编辑/金花)厩…㈣…一……授,究方向为景观和环境规划如何影响和指导人为景观变化(博茨瓦纳)伊泽瑞尔·勒格瓦伊拉/谢菲尔德大学在读博士研究生/英国土地复垦学会成员、景观研究所学术成员、博茨瓦纳农学院讲师译者简介:刘滨谊/1957年生/男/辽宁人/同济大学建筑与城市规划学院景观学系主任、教授、博士生导师,同济大学风景科学研究所所长/研究方向为基于现代技术的视觉景观感受分析评价;现代风景园林、景观与旅游规划设计的教学与实践/本刊副主编(上海200092)唐真/1985年生/女/山东人/同济大学建筑与城市规划学院景观学系在读博士研究生(上海200092)LandscapePlanning,2011,99:1—8Landscapequality:MajorRprojectVisualLandscapeResearch--OverviewandOutlook(Germany)EckartLange,(Botswana)IsraelLegwailaBeautyisconsideredtobethecentraIaeStheticvaluellJ.LandscapeArchitectureisaboutbeauty.BeautyisattheheartofthedisciplineofLandscapeArchitecture.ThroughtheirworkLandscapeArchitectscanmaketheworldmorebeautiful.AtthesametimeLandscapeArchitectsassessthevisualeffectsorimpactsofprojectsproposedbyotherdisciplines,aidingtopreservethebeautyofourenvironment.Bothstrandsofthedisciplineindealingwithbeauty,thecreativeactaswellastheanalyticalside,havealongtradition.1TheInherentProblemofAssessingtheVisualLandscapeWhenonedepictsanobjectasbeautifulorugly,avaluejudgementofitsvisualquailtyismade吲.Therehavebeennumerousattemptstodevelopatheorythatcanexplainwhypeoplecometohavecertainaestheticperceptionstocertainlandscapeandnotothers【3-4】.Theseattemptshavebeenmadedifficultbythesubjectivityoftheconceptoflandscapeaesthetics.However,anumberofaspectshavebeenpostulatedbydifferentresearcherstoexplainhumanperceptualbehaviourtowardslandscapeaesthetics.2TheTwoMainParadigmsinAssessingtheVisualLandscapeAcorecomponentofmakingdecisionsinlandscapearchitectureanddesignistheassessmentofpotentialfuturelandscapechanges.MajordevelopmentsinmethodsforassessingthevisuallandscapeweredrivenfrOmthe|ate1970sonwardsbytheUSForestService.theBureauofLandManagementandtheUSNationalParkService.Sincethen,themethodsandtheprinciplesforassessingthevisuallandscapehaveonlymarginallyimproved,butthetechnologyintermsofvisualisingthelandscapeandpotentialchangeshasrevolutionised.Inthepast,asdevelopedintheRenaissance。e.g.elaborateperspectivedrawingsweremadeformostlyhighlyprestigiousprojects.Lateroninthelate18们andearly19们centuryHumphryReptoninhisRedBooksproducedrevolutionarybeforeandaftervisualisations(watercolorswithamovableflap)oflandscapesandhisproposedalterations.Similartopaintings,thesewereone—offoriginals.Evenatthetimewhenthemethodsforassessingthevisuallandscapeweredevelopedinthe1970stherewasonlyaverylimitedrangeoftechniquesavailabletorepresenttheIandscape,foremosttomentionperspectivesketches,photographyandphotomontagetechniques.Assessingnotyetexistingorproposedlandscapesposedamethodologicalproblemintermsofvisuallyrepresentingsuchalterations.Thisofcburseisakeyelementinanassessmentprocess.Nowadays,万方数据VisualLandscapethereisarangeofmethodsathandthathelpthelandscapearchitecttocreatewholevirtuaIenvironments.Assessingthevisuallandscapequailtyisapproachedonthebasisoftwocontrastingparadigms.Theobjectivistorphysicalparadigm(expertbasedapproach)regardsquailtyasanintrinsicvaluewithintheattributesofthephysicallandscape,suchaslandform,vegetation,waterbodiesetc.Thiscanbeexpressedasamathematicalmodelbyquantifyinghowphysicallandscapeelementscontributetovisuallandscapequality㈣】.Animalsandhumansaretypicallynotconsideredinsuchmodelsasperceptionsofthemarepoorlyunderstoodm.Thesubjectivistorpsychologicalparadigm(1aypersonbasedapprcach)regardslandscapebeautyasbeingintheeyeofthebeholder,basedontheperceptionoftheobjectandthroughthememoriesandanysymbolismitevokes.Typically,surveysorquestionnairesareusedtofindoutaboutthevaluesofthepublic.Fordecades,bothparadigmshavebeencompetingandthequestionofrepresentativenessofasampleorexpertsubjectivityinthemodelshasbeenhighlighted嘲.Veryrarely,bothapproacheshavebeencombined.Thismayinvolvetheconductofaperceptualassessmentdonebythegeneralpublicfollowedbyamoreobjectivecharacterizationofthelandscapebyexperts即o.However,therehasbeennoemergenceofasingleunifiedassessmentframework3LandscapeasaVisuaIResourceThevisuallandscapeisapublicresourcethatneedsplanning,andcontinuousmanagementinordertopreserveandenhanceittoensureitssustainability.Gobstereta1.(2007)”i1,statethatlandscapeplanning,designandmanagementthataddresstheaestheticsoffuturelandscapepatternscanbeapowerfulwayofprotectingandenhancingthefunctionalgoalsofourenvironments.Thatis,landscapesthatareaestheticallypleasingaremorelikelytobeappreciatedandcaredforthanthosethatarenot,regardlessofthefunctionalimportanceh11-12]Atthesametimelandscapesthatarecaredforhaveabetterchanceofcontinuedfunctionalityandthereforesustainability(Fig.1).Thepotentialimpactofgreaterconsiderationofvisuallandscapequalitygoesfarbeyondtheaestheticswithprovenlinkstoeconomicvalues(e.g.beautifullandscapesandtourism),ecologicalvalues(e.g.highecologicandaestheticvaluesofwildflowermeadows)andsocialvaluesfe.g.visuallypleasinglandscapesandhumanheathandwell—being)㈣.4VisualQualityMappingMethodsforassessingthevisuallandscapecanbeassistedby主题景观的视觉性approachesthatallowtodescribeormapanddelineatethevisuallandscapequalityofexistinglandscapes.Thisise.g.anelementofmappingthevulnerabilityofalandscapetochange.Mappingvisualquality,i.e.producingmapsthatshowdistinctareasofdifferentlevelsofvisualqualityintheorysoundslikeastraightforwardthingtodo.However,animportantconsiderationthatappliestobothparadigmsandthatismethOdOIOgica¨ydifficulttodealwithrelatestoseeingsomethingfrOmagivenviewpointvs.seeingtheactualviewpoint(theproblemof。view—of‘and。view—from。),i.e.howmuchdoesitmatterwhenamseeingabeautifullandscapebutamactuallypositionedinanuglylandscape,e.g.onawaste—dumpsite?Orvice—versa?Howwouldthisinfluenceanevaluation?AlessextremeexampleisprovidedinFig.2and3.AnattempttosolvingthisissueisnotjusttogiveascorefortheactualsitebuttoincorporatethevalueofneighbouringenvironmentsinacombinedSCore.5VisualQualityAssessmentMethodsLandscapeandvisualqualityassessmentstudiesseektoestablishorpredictqualitiesoflandscapesbasedonthejudgementsbyeitherexpertsorthegeneralpublic.Somestudieshavegonebeyondthistoestablishobjectivecontentsandcharacteristicsofthelandscapesthatinfluencehowtheyareperceived㈣15].Theperceptionisinfluencedbythedifferentdimensionsthatlandscapesexhibit.Onecategoryoftheseemphasisestheviewer。sfeelingsaboutthelandscape.Thesearereferredtoascognitivedimensionsandincludesuchcategoriesasmystery,sublimity,scarcityoradjectivessuchasdepressingandrefreshing陋一Theothertypesofdimensionsarereferredtoasphysicaldimensionsofthelandscape.Theyincludee.g.terrain,water,buildings,woodland(Table1).Descriptorsmayincludevariety,colour,texture,dominance,patternandunity【10】.Visualqualityassessmentstudieshavebeencarriedoutthroughseekingpeople。sobjective(experts,professionals)andsubjective(public)interpretationoflandscapes【5—6l15,20-21].AdiagrammaticoverviewisgiveninChenowethandGobster(1986)(Fig.4).5.1ExpertbasedassessmentsExpertbasedassessmentspresupposethatqualitiesofalandscapeareinherentinitsphysicalcharacteristicsl2”.ThecharacteristicsareseenasconstructsthatcanbeevaluatedindividuallyorcollectivelytoestablishTable1Factorsthatinfluencelandscapepreference№18。1q0bserverLandscapeSubject—ObjectAtmosphericCharacteristicsCharacteristicsRelationshipCharacteristicsCulturalbackgroundSize/scaleDistanceWeatherFamⅢarityMineraltypeVisibilityDaytimeGenderTopographySeasonAgeVegetationtypeHazeOccupationandstructureAcademicbac,kgroundImportanceofview万方数据orpredictthelevelofvisualqualityalandscapeexhibits.Thisinvolvestheuseofexpertstoevaluatedifferentcomponentsoflandscapesfollowingasetofcriteria【21。2目Theapproachentailsexpert’scharacterizationoflandscapesbyitsformalcomponents(e.g.1ine。fOrm,variety,unity,colour,dominance,contrast)andvaluinghowmucheachphysicalcomponentcontributestotheaestheticqualityoftheoveralllandscape.Theapproachcanalsobeusedtoapplyquantitativemeasurestoindividuallandscapefeaturesinordertodeveloppredictivemodelsforlandscapeaestheticpreferencel6].5.2PubliclybasedassessmentsThenon—expert,i.e.publicpreferenceapproachisbasedonthefactthatbeautyinlandscapecomesfromtwosources;theobjectandtheobserver[6一.Itisbasedontheexperientialresultoftheinteractionbetweenpeopleandtheirenvironment哆”Itisahumanconstruct.basedontheinterpretationofwhatisperceivedthroughthememories,associations,imaginationsandsymbolismitevokes.脚。Theapproachbasestheevaluationofthelandscape‘svisualqualitiesontheperceptionsoftheviewers.Thejudgementsbyindividualviewersaresubjectiveandvarianceinperceptualviewsresultantfromthissubjectivityisovercomebytheapplicationofconsensusviewofanumberofindividualviewsaboutthelandscape№23].Whiletheexpertbasedapproachcanbeconductedbyasingleexpert,andisthereforepronetocriticism.Whiletheexpertbasedapproachcanbeconductedbyasingleexpert,andisthereforepronetocriticism,anoneexpertapproachrequiresanumberofrespondentstoparticipateinasurveyoranexperimentl8,雹6StrategiesforGatheringAssessmentData6.1ThestimulusNexttoamethodologyforassessingthelandscape,thetwokeyelementstogatherassessmentdataarethestimulusandthesampling.Foralongtimethemostcommonlyusedstimuliwerephotographs.Inthemajorityoftheearlierstudiesphotographshavebeenusedtoprovidestimuliforlandscapeassessment【9‘10,2qTheuseofphotographsassurrogatesforactuallandscapesintheassessmentoflandscapepreferencehasbeenfoundtomatchanassessmentbasedondirectexperienceofthelandscaperelativelyclosely.Onlysincetheavailabilityofdigitalphotomontagetechniquesacompletenewrouteinlandscapepreferenceresearchhasopenedupf”.Digitallymanipulatedimagesallowforexperimentstobuilde.g.onarigidfactorialdesign,asevidencedthroughalargenumberofresearchpublicationsinthisarea【28】.Inlandscapepreferenceresearchthishasnowalsoextendedtousingvirtuallandscapemodels口o,291whichhastheadvantageofbeingevenmorecontrollableintermsoftheexperimentalparametersstudied(Fig.51.Anyremoteassessment,eitherinalab,onpaperorviatheInternetiscosteffective,astheresearcherdoesnothavetogothroughthetaskoftransportingthejudgestoasitefOranassessment.A||theseapprOacheshaveincOmmOnthattheyfOcusOntheVisuaIdimensiOnOft}1elandscape.1nthisrespectphOtOgraphsOrOtherVisualisationsareVa¨dsurrOgates.HoweVeLIandscapeisnotjustaVjsualphenomenon,Iandscapesprovideamultisensoryexpe—ence(Fig.6).6.2On—sneassessmentThismethodrequiresthejudgesinVoIVedintheIandscapeassessmenttObepresentOns.tetOusetheactuaIlandscapeasthes村muIusfOrtheassessment.ThiscanbechaI|engingw}thregardstOarrangingsuitabletimesandtransportationforthejudges.1tb—ngsthejudgestothereallandscapew.ththerealexpenencesthat|tpnDvides.|tcanbeidealfOrcertains北uatiOnshOweverthecOstsassOciatedwithitintermsOf“meandmoneymaynotbejust阡ied.On—sjteassessmentcOuIdbemOrebeneficialtOuseif0therexperientiaIfactOrssuchassOundarebeingassessedaswe¨.HOweVelOn—siteassessmentw川0nIyaIIOwanassessmentOfthee)dstingsituatiOn.W…eon—siteassessmentsw川proVidetheperSonsjudgingwithamulti_sensorye×pe—encetheywi|IonIybeabIetojudgetheexistingsituation.Apn3pOsedchangeandtheimpactOfitw川nOtbeabbtObeexperiencedOn—site.6.3Papersur、,eyPapersurveysarecOmmOnIyusedforma㈦nqueStiOnna{res陋删.TheycanaIsObeusedw吨hagrouporindiViduaIparticipantswheretheysitinanexpe—mentaIsettingtoundertake廿1eassessment.Whenusingthemai|一inapprOach,st…photOgraphsareusedtOprOvidethes“muIus.CarehastObetakentoensurethatthequalityOftheimagesisOfhighstandardinorderfOrthemtOexhibItwhattheyareintendedfOLInexperimentaIsettings,printedorprOjectedphotographscouIdbeusedtopresentthestimu|ifOrtheassessment.1nthepast,s|ideshaVebeenusedfOrIandscapeassessmentsn6。17l2创.TheimageprOjectionwasstatic.T。dayIdigitalimagesanddigitaIprOjectiontechnoIogyhasmadeitpossibIetoprOjectbothsti|limagesandanimatedsequencestoproVidestimu|iinIandsCaDeassessmentstudies.6.4InternetsurveyW陀htheadVentOftheWOrIdWideVveb,mOreandmOresurveysarebeingcOnductedthnoughtheInternet【15’3”.ThisrequiresdigitaldataintheformofeitherdigitalphotOgraphsOrdigitalvisualisatiOns.BecauseOfitsfarreach,廿1eJnternetproVidesanopportunitytoconductsurveyswithpeopleanywhereinthewOrld.1tispOten“alIyagOOdmethOdforachieVingalargesamDJesize[15,3到.HOwevert|1ereisIittIecOntrOIOnthecOnstitutiOn0ftheparticipantsampIep司.OneOfthedisadVantagesOfusinginternetsurveysinVisualqualityassessmentsisthat,thestimu|imaybepresentedindifrerentqua|itiestOpeOplera“ngascenedependingOnthecapabilitiesOfthecOmputerhardware,theresOlutiOnOfthedispIaymOnitOrandsoftwareusedtOpresentitp2—3司.AlsO,廿1ereisnOgeneralcOntrolOverthesettingwheretheassessm邑nttakesDlace.万方数据VjsuaILandscaoe7MethOdSOfRatingLandsCape7.1Ra“ngscaIesVVhenacqui—ngrespOnsesfrOmparticipantsinanexpe—mentaIsetupsomesortofaValuejudgmenthastobemade.InordertodothisratingscaIesareneeded.TherearenominaIscaIes(e.g.numberingoffootba¨players),ordinalscaIes(e.g.schoolmarks,preferenceranking),interVaIscaIes(e.g.temperature)andratioscales(e.g.age).GuiIford(1936)91andSymonds(1924)o蚓suggestedthatscaIesw陀hfewerstepscancauseIoss0fefficiencyinthelevelOfdisc—minatiOnOfthedifferentsteps.That}s,itmightmakettdifficultforthejudgetodifferenliatelevelsofpreferencebetweentwOOrmOres们mu¨becauseofthesma¨intervaIbetweensteDs.SuchscalesdOnOtprOVideenOughVa—anceintheratingOfdifrerentstimⅢ.OntheOtherhand,scaIesw北hmanyStepsareaIsOsaidtOhaveapotentialtoaffectjudgesabi|itytodisc—minatebetweensteps门5lUsingthescales,judgesareexpectedtochooseanumberorcategorythatbestre伺ectstheirperceptionofthestimu¨.AccordingtoGu¨fOrd口41(1936)a5一stepscaleisthebesttousewhenjudgesdonothavee)(七ensiveknowIedgeofthesubjectbeingassessed.Symonds‘3司(1924)ontheotherhandsuggestsaseVenstepscaIeastheOp“mum.ThesescaIesaresOmetimeanchOredwithwOrdstOcOntinuOusIvremindtheviewerOfthecriteriafOrassessmentwiththenumberrepresentingtheStrengthofthequaIitiesbeingrated№361.1tcanhOweverbeacha¨engetodeVeIopaVerbaIdescriptionfOrscaIeswithmorethanfivesteps.Thismakesscalesw往hsma¨ernumberOfstepsbettertOuseinthissensebecauseeachnumbercanbematchedtOaverbaldesc一0tiOnmakingiteasiertOunderstand。怕1.1tistypica||yassumedthatthereisanunderIyingmetricinpreferenceratings,i.e.aIIOwingtOcaIculatee.g.aVeragesandpe№rmfurtheradvancedstatiStics.7.2Pair—wisecompar.sonsInthismet|10d,stimuIiaresystematicaIlypairedandpresentedtOviewers。onepairatatimep叫.TheviewermakescomparativejudgementsOfthepa.rtOdeterminewhichOfthetwOpresentagreaterv剖ueOfwhatisbeingmeasured.ItusestheThurStoneLaw0fcompar甜ivejudgementp.Thenumberofpairsdependsonthenumberofobjectsusedintheassessment.Thenumber0fobjectsisitse|fdependentonthepurposeoftheassessment.InOrdertOdeterminethenumberOfpa.rsthefOIlOwingformuIashouIdbeapplied:(N【N一1】/2),whereN=totalnumberofobjectsl3叫.7.3S0ningThismethodisalmostsimilartot卜leordinal(categoricaI)ratingscalemethod.TheOnIydiffbnenceisthattheviewerhast0bephysicaIIyinvoIvedlnthearrangementOfstimu|iintOdifferentcategOriestOrefIecttheirperceptiOnOfthedjfferentstimuli【2叫.7.4BipolarIist,SemantiGdif『erentiaITheSemanticDifferentialme廿10dusesalistofpa;redadiectiveswhjchdesc—bethecOgnitivedimensiOnsOfthelandscape【17l3剜.AscaIeisanchoredbetweentheadjectiVepairsforthejudgetoindicatetheirlevelofperceiVedjudgementbasedontheeachpair(Fig.7).ForeaseofIegbjI陀M13主题景观的视觉性theresultscanbedisplayedgraphicallybycombiningallscoresinonegraphic.7.5ParticipantsamplingInareal—worlddecision—makingcontextparticipantsshouldrepresentthedemographicsofthetargetpopulationoftheassessment.Academicresearchinthisfieldhashoweverlargelyinvolvedstudentsonlyasthetargetpopulation‘5。201.Withregardstosamplessize,Daniel(2001)E81concludedthatsmallsamplesoffivetothirtyparticipantshavepreviouslyyieldedresultsthathaveconsistentlyhighinternalvalidity.However,generalizationofresultscanonlybereliableIfitisappliedtoindividualswiththesamecharacteristicsastheparticipantsl3q.8OutlookInassessingthevisualqualityofthelandscapethereisnosignofasingleunifiedassessmentframework.Thereisontheonehandtheobjectivistorphysicalparadigm(expertbasedapproach)andontheotherthesubjectivistorpsychologicalparadigm(1aypersonbasedapproach).However,majorrecentadvancesinvisualisationresearchallowtoaddresscertainissuesthathadbeenmostlyneglecteduntilnoworthatweredifficulttodealwith.Thismighthelptobridgethegapbetweenthetwoparadigms.Researchinvisualassessmenttypicallyassumesthatweviewtheworldasifweareviewingastaticorframedpicture.However,neithertheworldisstatic,norweasviewersarestatic.AccordingtotheTheoryofEcologicalPerception口qwenormallyperceivetheworlddynamically.Humanperceptionisnotstaticandweareusedtoperceivingtheenvironmentwhilewearemoving(Fig.8).Thereislittletononeempiricalresearchrelatedtotheevaluationofsequentialandorimmersiveexperiencesinthelandscapel40].Incorporatingthefactorofdynamicmovement,e.g.inaVRtheatrewouldalsoallowtosolvethe’view—of‘/。view—from‘problemastheviewerwouldnotberestrictedtoapictureofacertainpre—definedviewpoint.Furthermore,inareal—worldplanninganddesigncontext,e.g.avisualimpactassessmentforaprojectthatislikelytocausesomenegativeeffects,theselectionoftheviewpointsisoftenseriouslydisputedbetweenproponentsandopponents.ThisissuecanbelargelyresolvedbyusingvirtuaJlandscapemodels,wheretheviewerisnotrestrictedtocertainpre—determinedviewpoints.However.whi|etheviewerisabletomovefreelyInavirtuaIenvironmentbyusinglab—basedmethodsthepeoplearedetachedfrOmtheactualenvironmentwithitsmulti—sensorystimuli.Anentireartificialrepresentationofoursensoryexperiencesinalaboratoryenvironmentposesratherunsurpassabletechnologicalhurdles.Alternatively,thenotionofAugmentedRealityassumesthatreal—worldimageryisoverlaidwithdigitalvisualisationsshowingonlythefuturechangesontopoftheexistingenvironment.Untilveryrecently,AugmentedRealitywasonlypossibletoachievewith"high—endprototypicaldevelopments.14万方数据Increasingly,mobiledevicesareabletodisplaycomplex3Dgraphics,whileatthesametimeaccesstohigh·capacitymobilephonenetworksisavailable.Now,mobiledevicessuchasiPadandsmartphonescansupportaugmentedreality(Fig.9,10),thusprovidinganexpansionofthecurrentlyavailableplanninganddesigntoolkitallowingtoexperienceanaugmentedrealityviewoftherealworldon—sitewhilealsoprovidingtheuserwithacompletesensoryexperience.Itishardtopredictwhenandtowhichextentsuchanapproachwillbecomecommonlyusedinplanninganddesign.Clearly,ithasthepotentialtochangeassessmentanddecision—makinginplanninganddesignquiteradically,asitsupportsamulti—sensoryrepresentationandexperienceonsite.However,onlythevisualrepresentationofaproposedchangeprovidesareflectionofthefuture.OthersensoryexperiencesareofcourseIimitedtotheexistingsituationonsite.Visionisbyfarthemostdominantcomponentofhumanperception件”.NewdevelopmentsasoutlinedabovewilIoffernewroutesinvisuaIlandscaperesearch,whileatthesametimewideningtheviewtowardsanintegrationofmulti—sensoryexperiencesinlandscapearchitecturewillofferamoreholisticapprOachtoassessingourIandscape.Acknowledgments:SpecialthanksgoestoDr.EdMorganandLewisGillfromtheEPSRC-fundedURSULAresearchproject.(Editor/JINHua)Biography:ProfessorEckartLangeisHeadofDepartmentofLandscapeattheUniversityofSheffield.HejsaMemberoftheScientificCommitteeoftheEuropeanEnvironmentAgencyandanAcademicFellowoftheLandscapelnstitute.HisresearchfocusesonhowIandscapeandenvironmentaIplanningcaninfluenceanddirectanthropogeniclandscapechange,whiledevelopinginnovativemethodologiesofhowadvancedvirtuallandscapevisualizationsandmodelingcanbeusedtoexplorehumanreactiontothesechanges.IsraelLegwailaisaPhDcandidateattheUniversityofSheffield.HeisamemberoftheBritishLandreclamationSocietyandanAcademicmemberoftheLandscapeInstitute.HeisalsoaLecturerattheBotswanaCollegeofAgriculture.视觉景观研究——回顾与展望
作者:作者单位:刊名:英文刊名:年,卷(期):
埃卡特·兰格, 伊泽瑞尔·勒格瓦伊拉, 刘滨谊, 唐真, Eckart Lange, Israel Legwaila, LIU Bin-yi,TANG Zhen
埃卡特·兰格,唐真,LIU Bin-yi,TANG Zhen(谢菲尔德大学景观系), 伊泽瑞尔·勒格瓦伊拉,刘滨谊,EckartLange,Israel Legwaila(同济大学建筑与城市规划学院景观学系,上海,200092)中国园林
Chinese Landscape Architecture2012,28(3)
1. 帕特里克·米勒.姜珊.Patrick Miller.JIANG Shan 美国的风景管理:克莱特湖风景管理研究[期刊论文]-中国园林2012,28(3)2. 刘滨谊.姜珊.LIU Bin-yi.JIANG Shan 纪念性景观的视觉特征解析[期刊论文]-中国园林2012,28(3)
3. 李华君.卜祥度.李险峰.LI Hua-jun.BU Xiang-du.LI Xian-feng 储藏风景——景观材料的时间语言[期刊论文]-中国园林2012,28(3)4. 王绍增 主编心语[期刊论文]-中国园林2012,28(3)
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